ANYONE CAN LEARN A LANGUAGE
Fuziana Ali
What does every successful language learner do to
acquire a language?
In Malaysia, it is very common to find people who can speak at
least two or three languages. A person may speak Malay, Chinese and English.
Another person may speak Malay, English and Arabic. They can speak all these
languages fluently. Yet, some other people find it so
difficult to learn a second language.
Why do some learners are more successful than others in learning a second language?
Past research found that the successful
language learners use language learning strategies (Rubin 1975, Naiman et al.
1978, Oxford 1990 and O’Malley and Chamot, 1990).
What are language learning strategies?
There
have been many definitions of language learning strategies given by various
experts. Here, we shall only look at two definitions given by Oxford (1990), an
eminent advocate of language learning strategies and Mohamed Amin (2009), a
local advocate who are referred to globally.
Oxford
(1990) defined language learning strategies as specific
actions taken by a language learner to make
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective,
and more transferable to new situations. Some examples of specific actions suggested
by Oxford (1990) to be used as cognitive strategies include repeating, formally
practising with sounds and writing system, recognising and using formulas and
patterns, recombining and practicing naturalistic. For compensation strategies,
the specific actions taken in overcoming limitations in speaking and writing
are switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime or gesture,
avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting
approximating the message, coining words and using a circumlocution or synonym.
According to Oxford (1990), these language learning strategies are often used
by them consciously, to improve their
progress in apprehending, internalising, and using
the second language.
Meanwhile, Mohamed Amin (2000) in Mohamed Amin and Mohd
Zaki (2010) defined language learning
strategies as plans or actions that a
learner takes to improve his process of
language learning and he employs these language learning strategies to assist learning in speaking, reading, writing and
listening.
 |
| Professor Rebecca L. Oxford |
1.
The Oxford’s
(1990) Model of Language Learning Strategies
The
Oxford’s (1990) model suggested that language learners can overcome the
problems they face in learning a language by employing direct and indirect
strategies. Direct strategies comprises of language learning strategies that
directly involve the target language. These direct strategies require the use
of mental processing and are divided into memory, cognitive and compensation
strategies. These strategies are processed and used to serve different purpose.
A language learner may use memory strategies to
remember parts of speech. For example, the learner may apply images and sound.
A learner may use cognitive strategies
to manipulate a language. For instance, a learner can choose to do a lot
of practice with the language learnt. He may imitate a native speaker or even
practise pronouncing new words learnt. A learner may also use compensation
strategies to comprehend a
language or to produce the language. These compensation strategies help a
learner to use alternative way of communicating in the language learnt despite
having limited vocabulary and inadequate grammar. A learner may make a guess
intelligently by using linguistic clues or any other clues to comprehend what
the other speaker is saying or to understand a reading text. A learner may also
employ some compensation strategies such as switching code, getting help,
miming, using gesture, coining words and using synonym to overcome difficulties
in speaking and writing.
Meanwhile, indirect strategies include
language learning strategies that support the direct strategies. They help
language learners to manage their language learning without directly involved
the target language. Oxford’s (1990) indirect strategies comprises of metacognitive
strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. All these three strategies are applicable to
improve listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Metacognitive strategies are
strategies that allow language learners to monitor their learning. They are
categorised into three types. The first one is centring your learning. The
strategies that a language learner may take in order to centring their learning
include overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention
and delaying speech production to focus on what I am listening to. The second
one is arranging and planning your learning. A language learner may choose
strategies such as to find out about language learning, organise, set goal and
objectives, identify the purpose of a language task, plan for a language task
and seek practice opportunities. The third one is evaluate your learning. To
evaluate his learning, a language learner may self-monitor and self-evaluating.
For examples, he monitors his learning by identifying errors made and reduces
them. At the same time, he
self-evaluates his progress in learning the target language.
Affective
strategies are
strategies that language learners adopt to lower their anxiety, to encourage
themselves and to take their emotional temperature. Affective strategies are
crucial in developing progress in language learning. The success of learning
depends on the learner’s attitude and motivation. Too much fear of making
errors can inhibit a learner from improving himself. Thus, a learner may adopt
relaxation technique, listen to music or use laughter to reduce anxiety. He may
also make positive statements about himself, take risk wisely and reward
himself as self-encouragement. Writing a language learning diary and discussing
feeling with someone else about language are examples of how language learners
take their own emotional temperature. Being able to assess their feeling, the
learners will be able to control their emotion and reduce negative thoughts
that may hamper their learning.
Social
strategies are
chosen by language learners when they need others to help them overcome
difficulties in learning English. Oxford’s (1990) model of language learning
strategies stressed that there are 3 types of social strategies: asking
questions, cooperating with others and empathizing with others. All these
strategies can assist language learners to improve their listening, speaking,
reading and writing skills. In asking question, a learner may want to ask for
clarification or verification and to ask for correction. Oxford (1990) claimed
that a learner usually tends to ask for clarification or verification when he
reads a text or listens to a conversation. However, a learner usually opts to
ask for correction when they speak in the target language and when they write.
Cooperating with others enable the learner to interact with others. The learner
may either cooperating with their peers or cooperating with proficient users of
the new language. In a language classroom, the learners may work together with
their peer in a group to complete a language task. They need to work together,
discuss, and ask questions. The learners may cooperate with proficient users of
the target language in the classroom and during natural interaction outside the
classroom. For example, a learner may ask a proficient speaker to slow down or
to repeat what he has said in order to understand what he is listening too. A
learner may also ask proficient colleague to explain some technical aspect of
the target language learnt.
Empathizing with others require the learners
to develop cultural understanding and to become aware of other’s thought and
feelings. Cultural understanding is crucial in assisting the learners to have a
better understanding of the listening or reading text. Being aware of others’
thought and feeling can assist the learners to be more sensitive of what to say
to others who are using the language. They have to listen to the tone of the
voice, the face expressions and other forms of physical fitness. In writing,
this awareness may help the leaners to understand the embedded meaning of a
sentence, a phrase or a poem.
2.
Mohamed Amin’s (2000) Model of Language Learning Strategies
Mohamed
Amin (2000) in Mohamed Amin and Mohd Zaki (2010) categorised language learning
strategies into three: classroom language learning strategies, out of class
language learning strategies and exam language learning strategies. He suggested that classroom language learning
strategies are strategies used to improve language learning during learning and
teaching process in the classroom. These strategies include paying attention in
class, listening to teacher’s speech, reading over class work, asking friends
to clarify, discussing with friends. Meanwhile out of class language learning
strategies involve strategies used to improve one’s language outside the
classroom. Conversing in English language with friends outside of school,
conversing with teachers in school and looking for opportunities to learn
English language are some of the strategies that can be adopted by the
students. Strategies in this category allow the students to practise the
language they have learnt in the classroom. Another strategy is exam language
learning strategies. These strategies can be classified as socio-affective
strategies. He cited reading over notes or exercises, studying grammar books,
memorising essay formats and doing previous exam papers as some of the
strategies.
References
Mohamed Amin Embi & Mohd Zaki
Mohd Amin. 2010. Strategies for Successful English language Learning.
Selangor Darul Ihsan, Malaysia: Karisma Publication Sdn. Bhd.
Oxford, R. L. 1990. Language learning
strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle
& Heinle Publisher.
Oxford, R. 1994. Language
Learning Strategies: An Update. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and
Linguistics, Centre for Applied Linguistics. (Online) http://www.cal.org/resources/Digest/oxford01.html
[14 March 2013]
Oxford, R. L. (1996). Language
Learning Strategies Around The World: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Second
Language Teaching at Curriculum Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, United
States of America: University of Hawai’i Press.
O’Malley,
J.M., Chamot, A. U., Manzanares, G.S, KUPPER, L. & Russo, P. (1985).
Learning Strategies Used by Beginning and Intermediate ESL Students. Language
Learning, 35, 1, pp.21-46.
(Online) http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1985.tb01013.x
[1 February 2012]
O'Malley,
J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner‐Manzanares,
Gloria., Russo, R. P., & Küpper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications
with students of English language as a second language. TESOL quarterly, 19(3), 557-584. (Online) http://www.hpu.edu/Libraries_HPU/Files/TESOL/TQD/VOL_19_3.pdf#page=129
[1 February 2012]
O'Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., STEWNER‐MANZANARES, Gloria, Russo,
R. P., & Küpper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of
English as a second language. TESOL
quarterly, 19(3),
557-584.
O'Malley, J. Michael, and Anna Uhl Chamot. Learning strategies in second
language acquisition. Cambridge University Press, (1990). (Online) http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/89009770.pdf [14 December 2013]
NOTE: For more information about Professor Mohamed Amin, please click this link
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